With a confusion following the death of Tsar Alexander I,
threats to the absolute power of the Romanovs emerged. It failed resulting to three
decades of reactionary policies – only to conclude with the rise of the Tsar
Liberator. Explore how Alexander II became a Benevolent Despot and became known
as the Tsar Liberator.
The reign of Catherine the Great
ushered in a golden era for the higher echelons of Russian society under her benevolent
despotism. Her rule transcended to her later successor, Alexander I. But
upon Alexander’s death, agents of liberalism and the Enlightenment that grew
during Catherine the Great and brought by Napoleonic War caused
serious repercussions for Russian autocracy. But years after which, Russia had
another Benevolent Despot. One who answered the great issue of abolition of
serfdom – Tsar Alexander II.
News of the death of Alexander I stirred
confusion in the line of succession. Alexander I left
no children to succeed him as Tsar and Emperor. Naturally, the next eldest
brother, Grand Duke Constantine should have ascended. But Constantine had no
interest in becoming Tsar, which he made Alexander known. Alexander then
decided to write a secret will, known only to a select few, naming his younger
brother Grand Duke Nicholas
Pavlovich as his successor.
By the time of the death of
Alexander, most knew that Constantine was the next Emperor. But after few days,
the secret will was publicly announced – Nicholas was
to succeed his elder brother as Tsar and Emperor. On December 10, 1825,
Constantine’s official renunciation of the throne was announced. The short
confusion in succession came as an opportunity for a group of young and “Enlightened”
reformist army officers and nobles to cease the moment to call for the
reformation of Russia's autocracy.
Liberal and
Enlightenment ideas spread significantly through the ranks of nobles and army
officers after the Napoleonic War. Officers and nobles, mostly young and active,
went to Europe to fight Napoleon became exposed to the ideas of the
Enlightenment. These ideas became attractive as it brings freedom of choice,
movement, and expression as well as participation of all people to govern
themselves and choose a path for their future.
In 1816, a group of
reformist-minded Russians formed the Union of Salvation that aimed for the
creation of a constitution and the abolition of the serfdom. For about a
decade, they waited for their chance to make their aims realized, which came in
December 1825 when they decided to show their grievances and became known as
the Decembrist.
The
Revolt
The Decembrist Revolt came
as a clash between Enlightenment reformist and the new autocratic reactionary
minded Tsar Nicholas I. On December 26, 1825, 3,000 troops in St.
Petersburg who supported the Decembrist did not swore their traditional
oath of allegiance to new Tsar. Instead they marched out of their barracks and
into the Senate Square where they camped out. As they stayed, the troops
demanded that Constantine to be the new Tsar, that a new Constitution be
instituted for Russia and that serfdom should be abolished.
Nicholas, a famous reactionary,
chose not to give in to the Decembrist demands
and planned to end the movement. He wanted it to end bloodlessly but the
situation turned too tense and in the end he ordered loyal troops to fire their
cannons to the crowd. The carnage ended the Decembrist Revolt and
also ended the lives of about 60 people. Although it failed, the Decembrist Revolt became a symbol for resistance against autocratic regime of the Romanovs in
Russia.
Nicholas I’s Reign
The aftermath of the Decembrist Revolt resulted to a massive crackdown on Decembrist ringleaders and supporters. Hundreds of Decembrist supporters faced exile but 5 faced death. The
government instituted censorship and descended upon any signs of dissent.
Although Nicholas I’s reign became well
known for its stability, it also became known as time of great decline for
liberalism and Enlightenment ideas in Russia. But one issue, however, began to
progress – the issue of abolition of serfdom.
Nicholas desired and
attempted to convince nobles to support the abolition of serfdom, an age old
institution that virtually equal to slavery. It became a hot topic for many
liberal Russians. But
Nicholas failed to abolish it during his reign. The duty eventually went to his
son and successor – Tsar Alexander II “the Tsar Liberator.”
The Reign of Alexander II
Tsar Alexander II
ascended as Tsar and Autocrat of all Russia in 1855. Surprisingly, as the son
of one of Russia’s most reactionary and conservative Tsars, Alexander was
tutored by a liberal writer named Vasily Zhukovsky. As Alexander started his
reign, he initiated immediate liberal policies such as relaxation of
censorship, freedom of expression, of press and tolerance to various culture
and religion. He forgave the remaining exiles from the Decembrist
Revolt in 1825 and allowed them to
return. In 1864, he launched the Zemstvo
Reform, which established local councils with powers to manage education,
health and the economy in the local level. At the same, the Tsar also reformed
the judiciary, making it independent and modeled after its counterparts in
Europe. He introduced universal conscription, which mandated all men regardless
of class to join the military. He expanded education by increasing the number
of public schools and improving the quality of education in universities. For
these reforms, the reign of Alexander II became known as the “Era of Great
Reform.”
But his grandest reform
involved the greatest social issue in Russia for centuries – serfdom.
The
Emancipation Manifesto
The abolition of serfdom
became the greatest issue in Russia during the Alexander’s reign. Alexander
II’s great grandmother, Catherine the Great, his uncle, Alexander I, and his father,
Nicholas, wanted to abolish serfdom. But intense pressure from the landed
gentry and fear of rebellion thwarted any moves in freeing the serfs. Alexander
II, however, saw its abolition as vital for Russia’s economy, society and morality.
In economic terms, he saw the abolition of serfdom as a path towards creating a
modern economy. Socially, he saw it vital for improving equality between social
groups in Russia. Morally, he could not bear the idea of a man owning another
man. He saw it as virtual slavery that needed to be extinguished.
In 1861, Tsar Alexander
II, Autocrat and Emperor of All Russia, signed the Emancipation Manifesto,
which freed all private serfs from their masters. With this act, he became
known as the “Tsar Liberator” – liberator of over a million serfs.
The aftermath of the
abolition of serfdom, however, was a catastrophe for millions of serfs. Serfs
were free but with no land. Alexander hesitated to give them the land they farmed
in fear of causing deepening discontent among the landed gentry. Serfs had
the opportunity to purchase a small part of the land they once
tended. But the prices of the land they planned to buy from their former
landlords were higher than its market value. Even though the government
provided financial assistance, numerous serfs fell in indebtedness and
ultimately extreme poverty just to purchase a little piece of land. Liberation
became an empty word for the serfs when their impoverish condition continued
and even worsened. The failure of Alexander II to match the liberation of serfs
with improvement of their situations led to a rise of discontent.
Discontent,
Opposition, and Death
The disappointment in
the aftermath of the emancipation exacerbated questions of his liberalism. In
1863, Alexander authorized the crushing of a Polish uprising aimed in restoring
the independence of Poland from Russia. It ended when Russia defeated the
rebels and tightening of Russian control over Poland.
Many then planned to
make Alexander II pay for his shortcomings with his life. In 1866, Alexander II
was almost shot by a radical left wing supporter. For several times, a
terrorist group, known as the People’s Will, threatened the life of Tsar
Alexander II. And for several times, Alexander survived.
In March 13, 1881,
however, the People’s Will finally succeeded. On that day, they bombed the
carriage of Alexander II in a narrow street of St. Petersburg. Alexander II
survived and went out of his carriage to help the injured. The Tsar made a
mistake by coming out of his carriage, which gave another member of the
People’s Will the chance to drop another bomb near Alexander II. It caused an
explosion that mortally wounded the Tsar. Eventually, due to his severe
injuries, Alexander II, Tsar Liberator, passed away. His sudden death ended his
supposed next great liberal reform – the creation of a Russian Constitution and
a Russian legislature.
Aftermath
Alexander II’s son who
succeeded him as Alexander III saw the liberal policies of his father as the cause of the
rise of radical terrorist and eventually his death. This brought him to the
decision to reverse most of the liberal policies and reassert Russian autocracy
starting with the scraping of the plans for a constitution and a legislature.
Summing Up Alexander II’s Reign
The reign of Tsar
Alexander II earned a place in the hall of fame of the Romanovs. Although, not as renowed as Catherine the Great and Peter the Great, he achieved what
his late Benevolent Despots as well as his father can’t – the abolition of
serfdom. But even this accomplishment came with criticism. The abolition failed
to deliver prosperity or improvement to the lives of newly freed serfs, which
later caused his tragic and untimely demise.
Russia’s benevolent
despots – Catherine the Great, Alexander I, and Alexander II – introduced a new type of rule
in Russia. They ruled with absolute power but with intentions for the
improvement of the lives of their subjects – or at least the powerful once – in
order to achieve their personal objectives. They promoted humanistic and
liberal ideas, culture as well as intellect.
Catherine the Great became a benevolent despot for the sake of maintaining
support for his illegitimate rule and also to make what she read reality. Alexander I became a benevolent despot to deliver Russians
out from the authoritarian and strict rule of his father as well as to
legitimize his bloody takeover of the throne. Finally, Alexander II became a
benevolent despot for his personal convictions as well as the call of
circumstances. However, their benevolent absolutist regimes only had been
enjoyed by the landed and privileged nobility, causing massive dissatisfaction
to the majority peasants and serfs.
And so the beliefs that
these despots cherished became a foundation of what resulted to the fall of the Romanov Dynasty. Catherine
introduced liberal and enlightened ideas in the center of power. Alexander indirectly
spread this ideas to the elite by engaging in the Napoleonic War. And Alexander
II caused the radicalization of individuals that believed in the ideas of the
Enlightenment which then led to revolutionaries that brought the Revolutions of
1905 and ultimately 1917, when the last Romanov Tsar Nicholas II abdicated
and later executed.
Eventually, a true
Enlightenment and liberal reform would not prevail in an autocratic society
without giving up absolute power and giving sharing them with the people.
Nevertheless, Catherine the Great, Alexander I and Alexander II thought that
both could co-exist for the benefit of all.
Explore also:
Bibliography:
Gleason, Abbott.
"Russian Decembrist Revolt (1825)." In The Encyclopedia of
Political Revolutions. Edited by Jack Goldstone. New York, New York:
Routledge, 1998.
Grant, Jonathan.
"Alexander II, Tsar of Russia (1818-1881)." In Encyclopedia
of the Age of Imperialism, 1800 - 1914, v. 1. Edited by Carl Cavanagh
Hodge. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc., 2008.
Kort, Michael. A
Brief History of Russia. New York, New York: Facts On File, Inc., 2008.
Prominent Russians: Alexander II LIberator. RT Russiapedia (Get to Know Russia Better). Accessed on November 18, 2015. http://russiapedia.rt.com/prominent-russians/the-romanov-dynasty/alexander-ii-liberator/
Prominent Russians: Alexander II LIberator. RT Russiapedia (Get to Know Russia Better). Accessed on November 18, 2015. http://russiapedia.rt.com/prominent-russians/the-romanov-dynasty/alexander-ii-liberator/
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