Russia’s course in
the last 50 years of the 19th century saw changes in policies, society, and
economy. The situations created new challenges and aspirations. With infusion
of new ideologies, it led to the creation of political movements and parties.
Explore what were the ideologies that spread and political parties that
emerged, which played key roles in the Russian Revolution of 1905.
Political Ideologies
The 19th century ushered the development of new ideologies – various philosophies ending with –isms – both in Europe and Russia. Much of it developed from the Age of Enlightenment and by the Industrial Revolution. Most of it became widely used in politics, leading to revolutions and reforms that altered the history of many country’s as well as dictate the creation of new ones. And in the case of Russia and Revolution of 1905, towards reforms.
Liberalism
flourished in Russia during the age of Catherine the Great and her benevolent
despotism. It took root from the ideas of the Enlightenment, like freedom of
discussion, of assembly, of worship, of the press, etc., preached by various
writers in Europe like Voltaire and Diderot. It became the foundation for
political reform movements, such as the creation of a constitution and a
legislature. These ideas propelled Europe to turbulence, and Russia also had a
share. In 1825, ideas of the Enlightenment and Liberalism urged the Decembrist
Revolt. But other than revolts, it also inspired the reign of Tsar Alexander
II. It also inspired many moderates in the court of Tsar Nicholas II as well as
during the Revolution of 1905.
Populism,
on the other hand, developed in Russia during the middle of the 19th century
and especially after the emancipation of the serfs in 1861. Known for its
Russian name Narodnik, it supported
the cause of the masses, and in Russia’s case, the peasants. Populism took a
socialist stand in the political spectrum, providing programs that embodied the
aspirations of the peasantry, like land, better social services, and voice in
the government.
Nihilism
also grew in Russia during mid-19th century. It advocated the destruction of
the establishment through a revolution no matter the cost – even morality
itself. Some writers of this morbid movement advocated the creation of a
political revolutionary elite to rule the state. Eventually, this served as the
foundation of Vladimir Lenin’s philosophy in government.
Nihilism
and Populism took some of its beliefs from Marxism. Conceived by Karl Marx and
Friedrich Engels, it suggested that materialism and class struggle shadowed mankind’s
history. Since the start of social stratification, civilization transformed
through various stages, from slavery to feudalism then capitalism thanks to
greater need of profits. As the economic stage progressed, so too the
intensification of differences in wealth and what Marx called the class
struggle between the privilege and not. And in the stage of capitalism, the
fight between the capitalist and the working class or the proletariat would
result to a revolution, where the proletariat would rule and lead to the stage
of communism. The last stage of communism promised equality and everlasting
prosperity to the proletariat, making Marxism enticing and desirable to many.
On
the other side of the political spectrum, the motto Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and
Nationality, summarized the tenants of conservatives. It originated from Tsar
Nicholas I and had ever since been the slogan for Tsarist and conservatism. It
meant that Russia’s identity was rooted to the Russian Orthodox Church, the
autocratic power of the Russian Tsar, and Russian culture and tradition.
Extreme believers of this motto incited pogroms against Jews and the
intensification of Russification of minorities in the peripheries of the Russian
Empire during the 19th century and the early 20th century.
Meanwhile,
nationalism also grew out in many parts of the Empire. These areas included the
Baltic regions, Poland, the Caucasus Mountains, and Central Asia. Many of the
non-Russian minorities became aware of their own culture with the rise of
nationalism in Europe, especially in Italy and Germany, as well as the growth
of the Intelligentsias. The Intelligentsias in the peripheries spurred
discovery of their own people’s identity and urged them to study and to protect
it against the policies of Russification by St. Petersburg. Because of
nationalism and opposition to Russification, movements for autonomy or even
independence grew.
Jadidism,
or the New Method, in Central Asia, on the other hand, emerged as a new way to
keep Islam alive in the midst of Russia’s assimilation policies. Once again,
the Intelligentsias in the region drove the rise of Jadidism. It changed
traditional Islamic education of Madrassas to something broader in substance
and appearances. From mere memorization of verses in the Koran, it promoted
analysis, critical thinking, and pursuit of new sciences, such as geography,
philosophy, and technology. It also used local language to prevent its
disappearance under Russian rule. They also introduced new materials such as
desk, chairs, and boards in schools. Jadidism was a moderate stand against the
Russification of Russia.
While
nationalism grew, so as for internationalism. Various groups and ideas of
internationalism developed in Russia alongside other political ideologies.
Social Democrats who adhered to Marxist ideologies believed in the unity of
various labor groups across Europe and the Russian Empire. In Central Asia and
the Caucasus, the idea of Pan-Turkism meant the unification of all Turkic
people from Anatolia to Western China. This idea, however, promoted bloody
event in the Caucasian region, which claimed the lives of thousands of
non-Turks.
The
spread of these ideas provided the core of many political parties that emerged
in the second half of the 19th century and the early years of the 1900’s. Each
ideology provided answers and means to different groups. These development in
Russian politics allowed the diversity of ways as well as the aim for the
reforms demanded in 1905.
Political Parties/Groups
As
each classes in society had their own aspirations and with the spread of
different political ideologies, numerous political parties emerged in the late
19th century to embody particular objectives and specific ideology to follow.
While there were parties emphasizing on the interest of the peasants, there
were also for the working class. There were parties who took moderate and
liberal stand but there were those who were radical and revolutionary
Conservative, Socialist, and Marxist groups. But the growth of political
parties wasn’t limited to the Russia heartland. It also boomed in the
peripheries of the Empire. These parties became the instrument of struggle for
many to achieve reforms for the benefit of different groups based on the goals
depending on the ideology they followed.
The
Social Revolutionary Party of Russia (SR) was one of the earliest political
party to be founded in Russia. Established in 1901, the party took its roots
after peasants suffered from 1891 and 1892 famine exacerbated by falling
earnings from exports caused by the introduction of the gold standards. The
SR’s followed Marxist ideology and also populism. They showed a great deal on
the plight of the peasantry. They believed that the Bourgeoisie exploited the
peasants for profits. The party then promoted the socialization of lands and
placing production on communes. Besides populism and Marxism, nihilism also
influenced the party. It used terrorist tactics to show their discontent and to
gain attention for their cause. They orchestrated assassinations of high
ranking officials, such as Interior Minister Vyacheslav von Plehve. Along with
the Bolsheviks, they formed the most radical of the left wing parties.
Another
party, the Social Democratic Labor Party followed Marxist beliefs. They adhere
more purely to the ideas of Marx than the SR’s as they had the proletariat as
their concern. They also coordinated with other Social Democratic Parties
within the Empire and outside to fulfill the idea of internationalist unity of
all the proletariats without any regards to nationality. The founders of the
party supposedly planned to establish the party in 1898. However, the Okhrana
disrupted planned conference by arresting the participants. Only in 1903 when a
Second Congress convened initially in Brussels but later to London - a city
filled with liberality and away from the influence and surveillance of the
Okhrana and the Tsar. The Second Congress founded the Social Democratic Labor
Party. But during the Second Congress, a split emerged between the Bolsheviks
or Minority and the Menshiviks or Majority.
The
Menshivik and the Bolshevik differed in the process of reaching communism as
well as in methods in achieving the party’s agenda. The Bolsheviks, led by
Vladimir Lenin, wanted to skip capitalism and proceed immediately to the stage
of Communism. Lenin also fell under the influence of Nihilism when he promoted
terrorism and criminal activities. He also took the idea of creating a
government ruled by a revolutionary elite. The Menshiviks disagreed with Lenin.
Led by Julius Martov and included the prominent writer and orator Leon Trotsky,
the Menshivik took a moderate Marxist stand. They wanted to go to capitalism
first before proceeding to capitalism. They also differed in the form
government. As Lenin believed in a revolutionary committee and elite, the Menshiviks
wanted to establish a democratic form of government with elections based on
universal suffrage. Bolshevik and Menshivik split went serious as years passed
and by 1912, the Bolsheviks formally left the Social Democratic Labor Party to
form Russia’s Communist Party.
The
Constitutional Democratic Party, with its members known as Kadets, emerged in
1905 after the issuing of the October Manifesto. It encompassed moderate
liberals from the Intelligentsia class. Its foundation came as a result of the
unity of two different liberal reformist groups: the Union of Unions founded in
1903 by Paul Miliukov and the Union of Liberation established in 1904 by Peter
Struve. The Kadets aspired for the creation of a constitutional monarchy.
However, they differed from other moderate liberals as they wanted a complete
takeover of all lands and redistributing them to the peasants.
On
the other side of the political spectrum, in the extreme right or hardline
conservatives, the Union of the Russian People better known for one of its arm
groups the Black Hundreds. The Union of the Russian People appeared in 1905 but
the Black Hundreds appeared earlier during first years of the 20th century. The Union and the Black Hundreds believed strongly to the motto
Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality. The Black Hundreds and the Union
included powerful officials and supporters. The following of the group came
from the landowners as well as nobles. Their strong nationalism and loyalty to
the Tsar led them to support Russification of minorities and to commit pogroms
or other kinds of violence against Jews and other non-Russian minorities.
Along
the Russian heartland, political parties also saw a rise in the late 19th
century and the early 20th century. Like those in Russia, they embodied
different agendas and aspiration. The rise of these parties in other parts of
the Empire contributed to the spread of turbulence during the Revolution of
1905.
Explore
also:
Bibliography:
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General References:
"Jadidism," Historical Dictionary of Kazakhstan. Edited by Didar Kassymova et. al. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2012.
"Revolution of 1905-1906." In the Historical Dictionary of Poland, 966 - 1945. Edited by Jerzy Jan Lerski. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1996.
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Online Newspaper Articles:
A Russian Correspondent of The New York Times. "Russian Tells Story of Sunday's Massacre." New York Times (January 25 1905). URL: http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9505E0D6173AE733A25756C2A9679C946497D6CF
"Troops Overawe St. Petersburg." New York Times (January 24, 1905). URL: http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9C07EFDF1F3BE631A25757C2A9679C946497D6CF
"Iron Ruler for St. Petersburg." New York Times (January 25, 1905). URL: http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9907E0D6173AE733A25756C2A9679C946497D6CF
"Revolution?" The Manchester Guardian (January 23, 1905). URL: http://static.guim.co.uk/sys-images/Guardian/Pix/pictures/2013/1/4/1357302276132/Russia-1905-uprising-001.jpg
Websites:
Ascher, Abraham. "Revolution of 1905." Encyclopedia of Russian History. 2004. Encyclopedia.com. 1 Feb. 2016. http://www.encyclopedia.com.
Trotsky, Leon. “1905.” Marxist Internet Archives. March 12, 2016. https://www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/1907/1905/
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