In the midst of the Cold War, a battle of ideology between the United States and the Soviet Union, the world’s young and new nations of Asia and Africa fell victim to the rivalry of the two superpowers. They decided to take a stand in April 1955 in a conference in Bandung, Indonesia.
Cold War,
Colonialism, and Neocolonialism
In the 1950’s the Cold War went into full swing. The Soviets expanded their influence exporting communist revolution across the globe. The United States on the other hand worked to prevent a domino effect of rising communism. The establishment of Communist China brought fear and anxiety to the US. This led to covert operations to internal affairs of countries to prevent the rise of communist parties. They along with western partners formed military alliances, like South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) and the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO), in preparation to military conflicts with the Soviets or Chinese. Conflicts between different countries also became proxy wars for the superpowers.
Mao declaring the establishment of the People's Republic of China |
Colonialism continued to be an issue for newly
independent countries. Many countries, especially in Africa, continued to be
subjugated by their colonial masters or pressured by them. Such the case of
Indonesia in its pursuit to gain West Irian and the case of Algeria to gain
independence from the French.
Though blatant colonialism remained an issue but a
dying idea, new forms of colonialism or neocolonialism began to emerge. Under
neocolonialism, countries practically had independent status but great powers
exercised influence and pressure to bend “independent countries” to their will
creating proxy wars and spheres of influence. USA and USSR formed military
alliances that also served as instrument of exerting influence over weaker
countries. Such the case in the creation of the Central Treaty Organization
(CENTO) and the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO).
SEATO Headquarters in Bangkok, 1950's |
The challenge for the newly independent countries
of Asia and Africa was to maintain their newly acquired independence and
prevent from descending once again to the influence of their former colonizer
or another great power. Most desired to have a neutral stand in the ideological
battle as many nationalist leaders desired to improve the standard of living of
their people through policies that greatly benefit them either capitalist or
socialist in nature. In this atmosphere of competition, the Bandung Conference
emerged.
Organizing a
Conference
The Bandung Conference or the Asia-Africa
Conference of 1955 traced its origins to the summit conducted in Colombo in
April 1954. 5 Prime Ministers came together to discuss the possibility of a
non-aligned movement of Asian and African counties. Prime Minister Ali
Sastroamidjojo of Indonesia, Prime Minister U Nu of Burma (present day Myanmar),
Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru of India, Prime Minister Mohammad Ali Bogra of
Pakistan, and Prime Minister John Kotelwala of Ceylon (present day Sri Lanka)
attended it.
The leaders of the 5 countries that became known as
the Colombo Powers agreed to a broad conference, but they contended who to
invite and who not to. The main contention focused on the attendance of the
People’s Republic of China – one of the biggest communist countries only 5
years old then. U Nu, Sukarno, and Nehru desired for China’s attendance but Ali
and Kotalawale feared China serving as a mouthpiece of the Soviets in the
Conference. The Colombo powers also decided not to invite Israel to bring into
the conference delegates coming from Arab countries.
Nehru also aimed to spread his idea of 5 Principles
of Peaceful Co-existence or Panchsheel
being concretized and signed in Beijing at the same time as the Colombo Summit.
His 5 Principle included: (1) Mutual respect for each other’s territorial
integrity and sovereignty, (2) Mutual non-aggression, (3) Mutual
non-interference in each other’s internal affairs, (4) Equality and mutual
benefit, and (5) Peaceful co-existence. The 5 principles became the cornerstone
of the Agreement on Trade and Intercourse between Tibet Region of China and
India being signed by the 2 country’s ambassadors in Beijing at the same time
as the Colombo Summit. The 5 Principle,
Nehru intended, to be another core value of a non-alignment movement.
The layout of the Asian-African Conference
finalized after the Colombo powers completed their Bogor Conference held on
December 28 and 29, 1954. By January, the powers sent out invitations to Asian
and African countries.
Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru during the Bogor Conference |
The
Conference
29 leaders and representatives from Africa and Asia
arrived in Bandung in the island of Java, Indonesia. Prime Ministers,
Secretaries of States, and Ministers, representing half of the world population
convened in the plenary hall of the Merdeka Building. Besides from different
countries, different independence movements also sent representatives for the
summit. These included Ahmad al-Shukeiri of the Palestinian Liberation
Organization, Makarios III of Cyprus, Ahmed Ben Bella of Algeria, and a
delegation from the African National Congress. Of course, American and Soviet
diplomats also attended to watch the proceedings. The whole world looked
towards the developments in Bandung that lasted from April 18 to 24.
In the conference, 3 committees were formed: political committee, economic committee, and cultural committee. These committees worked on future cooperation of attendees and for statements that would be written in the final communique of the meeting.
As the conference went underway, Indonesian Prime Minister Ali Sastroamidjojo served as the President of the Conference and the General Secretary of the Foreign Affairs Ministry of Indonesia, Roeslan Abdulgani, as Secretary General of the Conference.
In the conference, 3 committees were formed: political committee, economic committee, and cultural committee. These committees worked on future cooperation of attendees and for statements that would be written in the final communique of the meeting.
As the conference went underway, Indonesian Prime Minister Ali Sastroamidjojo served as the President of the Conference and the General Secretary of the Foreign Affairs Ministry of Indonesia, Roeslan Abdulgani, as Secretary General of the Conference.
President Sukarno giving a speech in the Conference |
Leaders and delegates gave their opening speeches
and discussed issues and contentions among African and Asian nations. The conference
became a drama of different interest of different countries, between neutralist
and anti-communist as well as those who wanted to condemn the West and those
who stood with moderate voices. Tensions also brewed on whether also to condemn
the Soviet Union’s action in Eastern Europe and whether it also constitutes to
colonialism.
Leaders of Ceylon and Pakistan aimed to moderate
the voice of the Conference and prevent India from taking the lead in the
Non-Alignment movement. Philippines, Iran, Thailand, Turkey, and Pakistan
voiced their moderation with regards to views towards the west. Pakistani Prime
Minister Ali Bogra and Indian Prime Minister Nehru contented on the right for
collective defense. Pakistan joined the SEATO and other attendees like Turkey
and Thailand also joined in some form of collective defense led by a western country.
Premier Nehru, U Nu, and Ali Sastroamidjojo during the Conference |
Prime Minister Ali Bogra competed with Nehru’s 5
Principles of Co-Existence with his 7 Pillars of Peace. The 7 Pillars included
Nehru’s 5 but added the right for collective defense and resolution of
conflicts through negotiation and arbitration. This infuriated Nehru who hated
the idea of collective defense.
Premier Zhou Enlai in Bandung |
Meanwhile, Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai kept his cool
and shone bright in the Conference as he pushed for China’s reintegration to
the international community.
In April 24, the Asia-Africa Conference came to an
end. A final communique or a declaration was then published to show the voice
that the conference produce. A combination of Nehru’s 5 Principles and Ali’s 7
pillars became the main point of the Bandung declaration – the Dasa Sila
Bandung or 10 Principles of Bandung. It included:
1. Respect for fundamental human rights and for the
purposes and principles of the Charter of the UN
2. Respect for the sovereignty and territorial
integrity of all nations
3. Recognition of the equality of all races and of
the equality of all nations large and small
4. Abstention from intervention or interference in
the internal affairs of another country
5. Respect for the right of each nation to defend
itself singly or collectively, in conformity with the Charter of the UN
6. Abstention from the use of arrangements of
collective defense to serve the particular interest of any of the big powers.
Abstention by any country from exerting pressures on other countries
7. Refraining from acts or threats of aggression or
the use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of
any country.
8. Settlement of all international disputes by
peaceful means, such as negotiation, conciliation, arbitration or judicial
settlement as well as other peaceful means of the parties’ own choice, in
conformity with the Charter of the United Nations.
9. Promotion of Mutual interests and cooperation
10. Respect for justice and international
obligations
The declaration created an atmosphere of unity of
the people of Asia and Africa, a spirit called the Bandung Spirit.
Reaction
from the West
The West, in particular the United States, and the
Soviet Union differed in their reaction towards the show of unity of newly
independent countries in Asia and Africa.
The Soviet Union, upon the announcement, welcomed
it with glee. They saw it as an area to create a socialist block aimed against
western influence or at least a movement that has no sympathy to the west.
The United State on the other feared the
conferenced as they viewed it as a possible area to combine anti-western
sentiments and become a third bloc that stood against them. The Eisenhower
government then used pressure to prevent their close allies from attending. But
when it seemed that no invitee country wanted to ditch the conference in fear
of being labeled as anti-Asian, the US then pursued a propaganda campaign and
influence the discussions in Bandung.
They had their close allies like the Philippines,
Thailand, and Iran to attend and mellow down the voice of the Conference and
take the stage away from radical anti-western sentiments. They also found
allies within the Colombo powers willing to stand against Nehru’s influence –
Pakistan and Ceylon. The US supplied documents and briefings to different
governments that attacked the communist. During the conference, they sent
covert operatives to assist delegates on their stand against communism in the
Conference.
The
Aftermath
The Bandung Conference became the launch pad for
the spread of non-alignment. It became the focus of the foreign policy of many
emerging countries in Asia and Africa. Eventually, the Bandung Conference led
to the 1961 Belgrade Conference that formally established the Non-Alignment
Movement, an organization that created the third world.
Though Bandung created an atmosphere of unity
between Asian and African nation, behind the show laid division in views and
policies. The United States wanted to create division within the Conference
before it began, yet it only need to exploit the already existing cracks within
the movement. Ceylon and Pakistan wanted to stop the rising influence of India
and Nehru. Fear and views of China and communism also differed between
different countries as some stood in neutrality while other in hostility.
Then the 1960’s saw conflicts among the prominent
players in Bandung. Pakistan and India continued to clash. China and India
fought a war against each other in 1962. A planned 1965 2nd Asian-African Conference scrapped when the host country Algeria suffered a
regime change. Then, other players in the Bandung Conference like Sukarno also
saw their demise. Sukarno fell to a coup led by Suharto. Nehru passed away in
1962. Burmese Prime Minister suffered also from a military coup in 1962 that
placed him in an impotent position.
See also:
Bibliography:
Books:
Bott, Sandra et. al. Neutrality and Neutralism in the Global Cold War: Between or Within the Blocs? New York, New York: Routledge, 2016.
Michael, Arndt. India's Foreign Policy and Regional Multilateralism. New York, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.
General Reference:
Berger, Mark. "Bandung Conference." In Encyclopedia of the Developing World. Edited by Thomas M. Leonard. New York, New York: Routledge, 2006.
Website:
"The History of the Asian-African Conference." In Museum Konperensi Asia-Africa. Accessed on June 2, 2018. URL: http://asianafricanmuseum.org/en/sejarah-konferensi-asia-afrika/
Website:
"The History of the Asian-African Conference." In Museum Konperensi Asia-Africa. Accessed on June 2, 2018. URL: http://asianafricanmuseum.org/en/sejarah-konferensi-asia-afrika/
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