Islam promised a community
(Umma in Arabic) united and equal regardless of race. But the Umayyad Caliphate
granted anything but that. Its desire to unite the Caliphate under Arabic
culture led to the creation of a whole new class of Muslims that do not share
Arabic blood. They became known as the Mawali.
Origins
The
Mawali became prominent during the Umayyad Caliphate and its rapid territorial
expansion that made it into an empire controlling culturally diverse population.
Under Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, a process of assimilation of non-Arabs to
the Arabic culture to unite the whole Caliphate began. Arabinization saw the
rise of Arabic language in government, commerce, and in coinage. To hasten the
incorporation of non-Arab Muslims to the Arabic tribal culture, a system of
patron-client relationship started.
Non-Arab
Muslims went to an Arab tribe where they would live and work as well as receive
protection, support, and even an arranged marriage. In exchange for the
benefits, they must serve and give their absolute loyalty. Thus, Arabs began to
call non-Arab Muslims as Mawali (in plural form) or Mawla (in singular form), from an Arabic word Waliya that has several
meaning based on context. But in this situation, it meant clients.
And
so many went under the tutelage of Arab tribes. Some military units of non-Arab
origin became clients of a tribe being incorporated to the tribal army.
Non-Arabs seeking better opportunity also became Mawali. Soon all of non-Arabs
became known as Mawali.
Failed Assimilation
The
client and patron relation aimed to assimilate non-Arabs to the Arabic culture,
but in reality cultural divide persisted. Arabs thought themselves proudly
especially being the people where the Prophet belonged and decades of great
achievements. They viewed Mawali as inferior. Mawali also failed to assimilate,
in particular Persian Mawali who also boasted a glorious imperial past and
history.
Later
on, Mawali started to be treated as truly 2nd class citizens within the
Caliphate even though they formed the majority of the population. In Kufa,
Mawali and Arabs worshiped separately. Intermarriage between Mawali and Arabs
forbidden. Mawali also took the burden of taxation while Arabs paid none.
Mawali received no Diwan or pensions while Arabs do. The Caliphate favored
highly the Arabs to the expense of the Mawali causing massive dissatisfaction
and resentment.
One
Caliph thou tried to balance Arab and Mawali interest to preserve the
Caliphate. Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz attempted to make the financial burden
of taxation more equal by trying to tax Arabs and Mawali alike. In the end,
however, his policy of equality failed as his successors disregarded his
policies.
Umayyad
society became divided and the Caliphate became widely viewed by many of its
population as an Arabic Empire rather than an Islamic Empire. Mawali were
disillusioned and believed the Umayyad had broken the idea of Umma. The Umayyad
Caliphate mirrored a modern day apartheid that weakened the Caliphate
ultimately.
Mawali and Abbasid
Revolution
Because
of their marginalization and the discrimination they experience, Mawali became
ripe for support against the Umayyad Caliphate. Shia and Kharijites rose in
numbers as they promised to the Mawali equality and redemption. Mawali
identified with the Shia Muslims who suffered also persecution against the
Sunni Umayyads. Kharijites promised equality and even gave Mawali an opportunity
to be leaders as long as they show tremendous piety and upright morality. Thus,
Mawali became widely involved in many revolts and uprising aimed against the Umayyads.
Ultimately,
they became a base of support for the Abbasid Revolution that began in 746. Abu
Muslim, a Muslim of Persian slave origin, instigated a revolt in the Khorasan
region in support for the claim of the Abbasids, the descendants of the Prophet
Mohammed’s uncle al-Abbas, to the Caliphate. They promised the establishment of
an Islamic Caliphate that welcomed all Muslims regardless of ethnicity. In
January 750, the Mawali and the Abbasid forces won the Battle of the Great Zab
River forcing the Umayyad Caliph Marwan II to flee to Egypt where he passed
away brutally in August.
The
Abbasids rose as the 2nd great Muslim dynasty and they delivered to their
promise of equality between races. Arab supremacy over others ended. Persian
culture in fact took the limelight with several practices of the late Sassanid
Empire returned. For instance, the office of Wazier or Vizier who served as
chief minister was established and inspired by Persian tradition.
Diversity
led to new opportunities for growth. It cultivated trade and exchange of
learning which finally led to the dawn of the Islamic Golden Age. An age that
saw great discoveries in the arts, sciences, and literature. Diversity which
led to the prosperity and success of the early Abbasid Caliphs.
See also:
Bibliography:
Books:
Asimov, M.S. & C.E. Bosworth. History of Civilization of Central Asia, Volume IV: The Age of Achievement, A.D. 750 to the end of the Fifteenth Century. Fontenoy, Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 1998.
Bowen, Wayne. The History of Saudi Arabia. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, LLC., 2015.
Lapidus, Ira. A History of Islamic Societies. New York, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
General Reference:
"Mawla." In A Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. Edited by Gordon Newby. Oxford: Oneworld Publication, 2002.
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