In
1795, the Polish people, who once controlled immense power in Eastern Europe,
saw their country disappeared from the face of the world, devoured by its
aggressive expansionist neighbors.
Poland – a Bright
Star in Europe
Poland’s
tragic partition marked the end of a great country that once dominated Eastern
Europe. Before, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth covered around 400,000
square miles of land and composed of modern day Poland, Baltic States, Belarus,
and part of Ukraine shying few square miles from the coast of the Black Sea.
Men
from all faiths came to Poland to work and enjoy the privilege of freedom of
religion and safety against force conversions that other Europeans imposed. In
fields of science and culture, Poland had several of the oldest universities in
Europe, such as the University of Krakow and Wilno University (University of
Vilnius). These universities produced many scholars and scientist like Nicholas
Copernicus whose theory of heliocentric solar system revolutionized astronomy.
 |
| Astronomer Copernicus by Jan Matejko |
Its
government also had unique features that made it stand out in European history.
In 1569, the Union of Lublin created the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth that
resembled the Dual Monarchy of Austria and Hungary, created in the 19th century.
A king of Poland ruled also as the Grand Duke of Lithuania but the 2 entities
maintained their own respective administration, laws, and military with foreign
affairs only being managed together.
The
Sejm also exemplified Poland’s extraordinary parliament and representation in
government. Starting in the 1490’s, the Sejm found its roots as a legislative
body of the affluent and influential elite class called the Szlachta. Later, its powers grew to
include approving of all laws before their enforcement, electing kings and
removing them as they pleased.
With
such achievements in various fields and a unique government then not seen
anywhere else in Europe, Poland stood as a bright star in the continent until
its sudden decline in the last half of the 17th century.
Decline of Poland
Poland’s
decline came as a result of internal and external strife. Excessive wars by
ambitious kings and a ruling conservative oligarchy brought stagnation and
economic disaster to the Commonwealth. All contributed to vulnerability of the
once mighty Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
During
the 17th century, Poland embroiled itself in numerous wars. Polish kings
marched against the Turks, Germans, Swedes, and Russians all clawing for land
and imperial prestige. Surrounded by enemies, Poles squandered their wealth in
wars which gave Poland few gains and huge losses in manpower, territory,
economy, and international prestige. By the dawn of the 18th century, Poland was
tired and stood as a shadow of its former glory.
Attempts
to reform Poland did materialized, but the Sejm brought everything to a
standstill. The Szlachta that formed 10% of the population dominated the Sejm.
The Sejm busied itself promoting their vested interest dominating kings,
peasants, and burghers, instead of rebuilding Poland. Worst, the Sejm made any
reforms impossible with its practice called liberum
veto where a single negative vote meant rejection of a law. Furthermore, a
single member also had the right to declare the Sejm dissolve and the body had
to wait for another 2 years to convene once again. Hence, it stammered any
proposal for reform especially those aimed in removing the privileges of the
Szlachta class or those targeted in empowering the peasantry and broadening
representation. The Sejm also opposed all attempts by kings to strengthen the
monarchy that might have help in speeding up reforms necessary for the country.
Division of Poland
As
Poland declined, its powerful and aggressive neighbors took advantage in
increasing their lands and influence. Through divide and conquer they advanced
their agenda at the expense of the Poles.
By
the dawn of the 18th century, Poland was surrounded by powerful aggressive
neighbors, all having design for expansion and desire to up their prestige.
Sweden wished to make the Baltic Sea to be their lake and many of the lands
that surrounded the sea was Poland’s. Prussia eyed itself to become a great
power and wanted to take over the lands in between East Prussia and Prussia.
Russia, meanwhile wanted to grow closer to Western Europe and, and like
Prussia, desired to be a well-known imperial force. Austria, on the other hand,
eyed for new lands to add to their already vast holdings in hope of keeping its
status as one of the leading countries in the continent. In all of these, power
and ambition for lands endangered Poland’s existence.
 |
| Augustus II the Strong |
Augustus
III’s succession was nothing smooth. Civil war engulfed the already weakened
country as major powers played a proxy war called the Polish Succession War.
Augustus fought for the crown with the support of the Russians and Austrians
while his opponent Stanislaw I Leszczynski returning for another chance of power
received the assistance of the French and Spanish. The country suffered until
it ended in 1736 with Augustus claiming victory and Stanislaw took the Duchy of
Lorraine as a consolation.
Augustus
III’s victory, however, did not ended Poland’s decline, but rather it revealed
the state of the country as a weak and stagnant country brought by political
deadlock. During his reign, the Sejm continued to hold tremendous power over
the advancement of law and reform. They opposed the King at any sign of
assertion of absolute power centered in the crown. They united against the
crown but divided against reform as seen with the number of times they
dissolved and vetoed any laws. They dissolved 5 times in their 15 session with
the rest marred by the Liberum Veto. Time
in a stood still in Poland amidst a fast changing politics of Europe.
The
Seven Years’ War continued the country’s misery and resulted to greater Russian
influence as Russian troops entered the country to fight their Prussian foes.
Right
after the war, the Enlightenment gained momentum in spreading across the
continent, and Poland felt its presence. Intellectuals started to call for the
breakup of the Szlachta’s control of the Sejm and the abolition of the Liberum veto.
 |
| Stanislaw II Poniatowski |
Among
his reform included the strengthening of the monarchy and broadening the
representation of the. His reforms, however, met with open rebellion by the
Szlachta who in 1768 formed the Bar Confederation to stand up against what they
saw as the deprivation of their rights and strong Russian influence that placed
Poniatowski in power. The Bar Confederation’s rebellion led to civil war and eventual
foreign intervention by the Russians. In 1772 the rebellion of the Bar
Confederation ended leaving the country once again in ruins and the leaders of
the Confederation rotting in the cold wastelands of Siberia.
Worst
for Poland, geopolitics went against their interest. Austria and Russia
heightened tensions as both countries competed for influence and territory in
the dying Ottoman Empire. Prussia meant to balance power in the region and used
diversion to appease the situation. King Frederick II of Prussia pacified the 2
countries by redirecting their attention from the Ottomans towards lands in
Poland.
The
divided and weakened Poland then suffered its first partition. On August 5,
1772, Austria took the region of Little Poland and its surrounding provinces to
form Galicia. Prussia took Eastern Pomerania blocking Poland’s access to the
sea as well as parts of Greater Poland. Russia grabbed northeastern lands of
the country, those that lie at the banks of Dvina and Dnieper Rivers. Poland
losses received Polish recognition with the Sejm legitimizing the land grabs on
September 30, 1773 at the presence of Prussian troops in its halls. The Sejm’s
popularity dropped and Poles saw the so-called Partition Sejm as traitors.
 |
| Rejtan at Sejm 1773 by Jan Matejko |
Yet,
20 years into the first partition, surprisingly, the Polish people showed
extraordinary resilience, displaying signs of recovery after the losses they
incurred. Stanislaw presided over the strengthening the country by establishing
a ministry of education tasked to modernize and secularize schools and a
Permanent Council to serve as his cabinet and instilled effective
administration over the country. Social reforms also showed promises with the
number of serfs rapidly declining and replaced by highly productive farmers.
The economy prospered even though it loss connection with its vital Baltic port
of Gdansk. They sought new windows of trading opportunity to the Black Sea
using its numerous river networks as their highway.
The
only field that remained in stagnation was the Sejm. Still controlled by
Szlachta class, they continued to oppose further reforms and even criticized
the King’s Permanent Council which they viewed as their rival in holding power
within the country.
But
even with the mistrust, they managed to meet in 1788 and formed the so-called
Great Sejm with the objective of creating a constitution for Poland and making
it a constitutional monarchy.
 |
| Great, or Four-Year, Sejm |
The
constitution made tremendous changes in the Polish government. Instead of
electing kings, the Sejm would be electing a dynasty to maintain stability
during succession. It also called for the election of the members of the Sejm
by a limited suffrage. Finally, it abolished the Liberum Veto which had caused
tremendous hardship for the country. The Constitution showed the political
advancement of Poland during the age of Enlightenment.
As
many liberals celebrated the Constitution of Poland, the absolute monarchs of
Europe denounced it. Prussia and Russia, the 2 most autocratic countries in
Europe, criticized the Constitution. More so, when in June 1791, the French
Revolution flared up which demoted the King to a figure head.
Among
Poles, criticism of the Constitution also brewed. In St. Petersburg, a group of
nobles formed the Confederation of Targowica and called for the Russian
invasion of Poland.
 |
| Tadeusz Kościuszko |
With
much of Poland once again in heel, Russia and Prussia took once again the
opportunity to take much land as spoils of war. Russia took over lands of
Belorussia, Ukraine, and modern day Lithuania. Prussia expanded control over
Gdansk, Torun, and Mazovia. Prussian and Russian troops stationed in the halls
of the Sejm and intimidated the body into approving the Second Partition of
Poland, which they did in August and September 1793.
Against
the Second Partition, General Kosciuszko rose up against the great powers in a
futile attempt to defend Poland’s sovereignty. He faced the overwhelming might
of Russia, Prussia, and Austria from March 1794. He received much support from
the people, but the great powers intended to break his will by launching
reprisals against towns and cities who supported his rebellion. Thousands died
and on November the Russians captured the wounded General Kosciuszko.
Discussions
on the fate of Poland soon followed. Russia, Prussia, and Austria thought that
to bring the Poles in control, they must take over the country absolutely. Came
then the Third and last partition of Poland. The tragic death of a once great
power came as the three powers devoured Poland and erased it from the map of
Europe on October 24, 1795.
After Partition
The
Poles held to their identity and heritage and many dreamed that once again the
world map would have Poland. Attempts to resurrect Poland were made. During the
Napoleonic Wars, the Poles sided with Napoleon who rewarded their service by
creating the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. But the defeat of French General in 1815
ended the Duchy and the Congress of Vienna maintained the partition. Bloody
nationalist uprisings came from time to time, and the Polish question remained
asked for the next century. Only with the end of the World War I in 1918 and
the Treaty of Versailles that once again Poland came to life once again. Today,
Poland is an integral part of Europe. A vibrant nation that has risen to life
after centuries of hardship.
The
story of the partition showed how stagnation and elitism brought death to a
nation. It also showed the resilience of Poles to stand up against difficult
situation and even defend their country against overwhelming odds. The
Partition was a story of divide and weakness that led to a tragic end for a
once powerful kingdom of Poland.
Sources:
Wandycz,
Piotr et. al. “Poland.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed on August 27, 2017.
URL: https://www.britannica.com/place/Poland/The-Commonwealth
Curtis, Glenn. Poland: A Country Study. Washington DC: Federal Research Division, 1992.
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