Aftermath
After
a decade long of wide division between different political factions, at the end, the
Tokugawa Shogunate obscured within less than a year. Alongside the
Shogunate, a whole medievalistic and feudal Japanese society – embodied by Domains,
Daimyos, and the Samurais – also disappeared within a following decade after the end of
the Bakumatsu. All for the sake of civilization and modernization under the
rule of Meiji or Enlightened Rule.
The
immediate concern of the new leaders after the Meiji Restoration was assuring the people of a new society and a new Japan. They must show the
Emperor ruled Japan, despite the truth that samurai leaders from the Satcho Alliance wielded real power over state affairs. As part of cementing the minor Emperor Meiji’s
rule, they published a manifesto on April 7, 1868 called the Five Charter Oath.
The
Five Charter Oath framed the goals and means of the new Japanese government. In its opening statement, it stated the goals of the government
to enrich Japan and provide a constitution for the Japanese people. The goals would
be made by forming deliberative assemblies discussing wide range of issues, uniting
all Japanese, regardless of class, in steering the country, giving all Japanese freedom from stringent social caste system, ending of old “evil customs,”
and pursuing of modern knowledge from across the globe. Indeed, the Five
Charter Oath defined the transformation that Japan underwent the Meiji Era.
Although
the samurais declared an imperial restoration, Emperor Meiji, a teenager during
the time of the Boshin War, held no power over state affairs. The true powers
fell to the samurai leaders of the Satcho Alliance who grew to become known as
the Meiji Oligarchs. Men like Okubo Toshimichi, Kido Koin, Siago Takamori,
Yamagata Aritomo, Inoue Kaouru, and Ito Hirobumi governed Japan over the next
fifty years. They used the Emperor's name to rally the people behind their course of
modernization and civilization for the sake of national independence and
defense against foreign invasions.
These
men directed the immediate change in Japan’s landscape in all aspects. The
oligarchs united the nation by abolishing the age-long tradition of Domains or
Hans along with their rulers – the Daimyos. With offers of generous
pensions, titles, and positions, in addition to the Imperial government's assumption of their debts and their burden of samurai stipend, many Daimyos surrendered their lands and retired peacefully to their respective residences, leaving the Meiji leaders to reform the local
administration. By 1871, Domains and daimyos were officially abolished.
The
Meiji Oligarchs then followed thru by ending another long institution - the honorable,
proud, and valiant samurais. Samurais formed the foundation of the imperial
restoration and manned the fight against the old Tokugawa regime. Yet, the Japanese government saw their abolition as a way to move forward. The
government barred the samurais from wearing their swords and their top knots.
Their decision to abolish the samurai stipend sparked a rebellion headed by a
once imperialist samurai leader – Saigo Takamori. His rebellion known as the Satsuma
Rebellion ended in defeat and tragedy, with Saigo committing seppuku as a last
respect to a way of life and becoming known as the last samurai. In military terms, the Satsuma rebellion demonstrated the advantage of modernly armed conscripts against the traditional warriors.
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| Battle of Shiroyama during the Satsuma Rebellion |
Summing Up
From
the events that transpired during the Bakumatsu, it mirrored the reasons that
Edward Gibbon’s enumerated for the fall of Rome. The Tokugawa Shogunate or the
whole Japanese feudal society weakened as a result of two centuries of peace
and isolation. They suddenly faced incursions and attacks from foreign
“barbarians” in form the Treaty Powers. In matter of resources and materials,
issues of corruption tarnished the image of the Bakufu, however, the of the economy and finances devastated them further.
Finally, domestic quarrels, between the Sakoku and Kaikoku and Imperialist and
Shogunate supporters set the stage for a showdown, leading ultimately to the
collapse of the Tokugawa Bakufu.
Injuries of Time and Nature
The
long slumber in silence and peace of Japan brought dullness and weakness to the
Tokugawa Shogunate. They slumbered for so long, they became oblivious to the realities
of the changing world. Japan stagnated in economic, technological, and
political aspects.
Although the Shogunate boasted a prosperous economy, it failed to realize the full potential of the Japanese people, especially with their qualities of industriousness, discipline, and dedication.
In technological aspects, even though it had scant knowledge of few western technologies they got it from a country considered a second rate power at that time – the Dutch.
The long peace also made the Tokugawa government incompetent, oblivious, and corrupt. Their duty remained the maintenance of status quo rather than interacting with other countries and initiate radical and progressive reforms. The dormant status of Japan led to its incapacity to defend itself against foreign interest.
Although the Shogunate boasted a prosperous economy, it failed to realize the full potential of the Japanese people, especially with their qualities of industriousness, discipline, and dedication.
In technological aspects, even though it had scant knowledge of few western technologies they got it from a country considered a second rate power at that time – the Dutch.
The long peace also made the Tokugawa government incompetent, oblivious, and corrupt. Their duty remained the maintenance of status quo rather than interacting with other countries and initiate radical and progressive reforms. The dormant status of Japan led to its incapacity to defend itself against foreign interest.
Also,
the stringent society of the Tokugawa Japan stagnated progress in many fields.
People lacked the drive to advance beyond their social classes because of the
strong influence of Confucianism. As a result, men who could perform better
than those in the government failed to enter simply due to their birth.
Although many decided to do well in their respective social classes, it failed
to completely unleash their potential again for the development of Japan.
Lastly,
in military terms, the long peace decayed the spirit of the samurai.
Ironically, because of peace, which benefited the whole country and contributed
to the longevity of the Tokugawa Shogunate, it weakened the Samurais as a
military class, with their katana and armors collecting dust and rust. Without
war or even rebellions, they did not taste any blood for
generations. As a result, by the time Commodore Perry arrived, they ceased to
be formidable warriors to defend the country in conventional battles.
Hostile Attacks of Barbarians and Christians
The
arrival of the so-called foreign barbarians lit the fuse that blew up Tokugawa
Japan. It caused the start of the Bakumatsu, causing domestic political
upheaval and a terrible economic crisis. It revealed the underdevelopment of
Japan compared to the west and the caused cracks that tarnished the once strong
and powerful Tokugawa Shoguante.
In
political terms, the foreigners brought humiliation and rifts to the Tokugawa
Shoguante. They undermined the Bakufu in the eyes of its people by forcing them
to sign unequal treaties, giving Japan a semi-colonial status. Their gunboat
diplomacy and the audacity of their negotiator created domestic divides within
Japan, causing the violence of the ronins, differences between Daimyos, and the
resurgence of Imperial influence with its slogan of Jo-i. This resulted to the
rise to challengers and alternatives to Tokugawa rule.
The
economic effects of the arrival of foreigners did not also went well to the
side of the Tokugawa regime. The sudden and forcible opening of Japan to the
world brought disruptions to its once isolated economy. Inflation rose as a
result of export and government decision to rapidly launch a modernization
program. The Tokugawa attempted to catch up technologically by launching
massive research and defense initiatives that drained much of its coffers.
Indemnity payments demanded by foreigners, especially the Shimonoseki Protocol,
for all the violent attacks made by disgruntled ronins and hostile Domains
placed more strain to the already burdened Bakufu finances.
But
not all of the actions of the foreigners went negatively. For many Japanese,
the actions of the foreigners paved the path for Japan’s later development. The
aggressive actions of the Treaty Powers in Kagoshima and Shimonoseki created a
deep impact to the mindset of many later leaders of the Meiji Era. The awesome
firepower and technological advancement of the west displayed in the two places
changed the views of once xenophobic samurais, like Ito Hirobumi and Sakamoto
Ryoma, from extremist Jo-i to a supporter of study and emulation of western
technologies and ways as a means to strengthen Japan and to maintain
independence.
The
arrival of the foreigners contributed to the fall of the Shogunate, yet it
defined the direction to which Japan took after the Bakumatsu period.
The Use and Abuse of Material
Although
allegations of corruption and opulent lifestyle tarnished their reputation, the
Tokugawa Shogun’s greatest failure in material terms by the time of the Bakumatsu
was its economic and financial weakness.
By
the time of Perry’s arrival, Japanese coastal defenses and military stood in a
pathetic state. The Bakufu mishandled the budget to maintain its military
strong, which might gave the Japanese the confidence to face foreign warships.
It continued to fail in managing the budget properly when it immediately
embarked on a rapid massive rearmament and research program. While revenues remained
as normal, it failed to raise it when its expenditure soared tremendously, causing
inflation and budgetary crisis.
The
inflation resulted to massive disturbances
in the country, inciting anger and desperation to the people. It caused riots
and mass hysteria, in form of the bizarre Ee Ja Nai Ka.
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| Depiction of Ee Ja Nai Ka |
Domestic Quarrels
Internal
divisions and conflict also brought the Tokugawa Shogunate down, especially
after the Treaty Powers’ coercion of Japan to sign unequal treaties. The main
contentions were the issue of Sakoku (closed country) and Kaikoku (open
country); the issue of power between the Emperor and the Shogun; and the
division between Fudai and Tozama Daimyos.
The
arrival of Perry’s squadron in Uraga Bay in 1853 hammered a chisel that caused
a cleavage to Japan for the next decade and a half. Abe Masahiro, the chief elder
of the state council, did not know how to react over an unprecedented issue and
decided to consult the Daimyos and the Emperor for opinions. The act revive the
political nature of these entities. Abe failed to gain a consensus and instead
revealed a huge divide between those who wanted to maintain the isolationist
Sakoku Policy and those who wanted to pursue a more realistic Kaikoku Policy.
The
divide continued as more foreigners continued to come to Japan, seeking
commercial treaties. Tokugawa Nariaki led the Sakoku believers in opposing the
policy of concessions of the Bakufu, while Ii Naosuke balanced the scale by
supporting the Bakufu’s policy as a practical means to increase national wealth
and to maintain peace.
Those
believing in Sakoku gained the support of Emperor Komei in Kyoto. From then on,
they began to shout the slogan Sonno Jo-i – Revere the Emperor, Expel the
Barbarians. Opposition towards the Bakufu’s concessionary policy led an
opposition not just to call for the return of Sakoku but also for an imperial
restoration, after realizing the Emperor supported their cause.
Ii
Naosuke’s rise as head of the state council and regent, however, tipped the
balance of power in favor of the Bakufu and the Kaikoku party. He clamped down
on opposition and imperial supporters by launching a purge. He interfered with
Shogunal succession to favor a traditionalist candidate who ascended as
Tokugawa Iemochi.
Ii,
however, fell victim to an assassination committed by a group of ronins. Ronins
complicated the situation of the Bakufu. Most of these masterless samurais
viewed foreigners as threat to the daily lives of the Japanese and strongly and
violently adhered to Jo-i. They attacked and assassinated foreigners and Bakufu
officials alike. Ii fell to their katanas in 1860, resulting to the realization
of the need of cooperation rather than competition to prevent another massive
purge.
The
Bakufu and the Imperial Court attempted to unite under the slogan Kobu Gattai –
Unity of Court and Shogunate.
 |
| Shimazu Saburo |
But
divide continued to persist especially with the attacks made by ronins and
other samurais. Their attacks on foreign legations and nationals led to
different reactions over the effects. Shimazu washed his hands while the Court
supported them due to the fact that they held the brunt of imperial support.
The Bakufu, on the other hand, felt weary as these attacks resulted angry
protest from foreign ministers and worse indemnity payments, which drained
government coffers.
The
rift showed further in 1863, when the Court issued an order to expel the
barbarians by June 25, 1863. Hitotsubashi and Shimazu voiced their opposition
but the Court persisted and the two had no choice but to obey. Hitotsubashi decided
the Bakufu would diplomatically negotiate the closing of the treaty ports.
Choshu,
however, took things to the extreme. They shut down the strategic strait of
Shimonoseki from foreign shipping by using their coastal batteries. In Kyoto,
this led to the military clash between the extremist Choshu and the combined
force of Satsuma and Bakufu. The Choshu lose in a coup, resulting to their
expulsion and the Imperial Court falling into moderate hands.
But
Choshu retaliated with force by attempting to launch a coup of Kyoto and kidnap
the Emperor in the following year. Their attack of Kyoto, however, failed
resulting to two expeditions mounted against them.
After
the First Expedition, another rift between Satsuma and Bakufu emerged. The
Tokugawa Shogunate embarked on reforms meant to strengthen again its authority
over Japan. Such movement by the Shogunate, alarmed Satsuma, who decided to
form an alliance with another fellow Tozama Daimyo, Choshu. Although both side
once faced in different factions in the battlefield, they both held a same
feeling towards the Shogunate, which led them to become Tozama or outsider –
hatred of the Tokugawa. As a result of the alliance, Satsuma and other Tozama
Daimyos boycotted the Second Expedition despite an imperial sanction. This
weakened the prestige and the economic and political strength of the Shogunate.
The
death of Shogun Iemochi, the rise of Hitotsubashi as Yoshinobu and ascension of
the minor Emperor Meiji altered once again the situation. Yoshinobu desired to
reform the Shogunate even with imperial restoration at the end. Meanwhile,
Choshu and Satsuma alliance vied with Yoshinobu for influence on the new
Emperor.
Eventually,
the Satcho Alliance won when Yoshinobu resigned and failed to keep Tokugawa
lands, prestige, and influence. The alliance dominated the Courts and many
Daimyos to prevent the wishes of Yoshinobu. By January 1868, their forces
marched triumphantly to Kyoto. Yoshinobu retreated to Osaka and counseled with
his allies.
The
Boshin War followed. Although questions remained whether Yoshinobu knew 10,000
samurais marched ahead of him to Kyoto, this led to the first battles of the
Boshin War.
In
the end of the Boshin War, divisions ended with the Shogunate collapsing and the
issue of opening finalized. The Court, Choshu, and other Domains in 1869,
realized that resistance to foreign powers would be suicide and death for
Japan, opting for opening and learning from the west.
Because
of its long dormant state, mismanagement of resources, continuous aggressive
incursions of foreign powers, and struggle for domestic dominance, the Tokugawa
Shogunate followed the same path of Rome towards its decline and collapse. In
just a span of a short period, the history of Japan changed during the time of
the Bakumatsu.
Significance of the
Bakumatsu
The
Bakumatsu was the turning point for Japan from a feudal divided society into a
modern nation state. The Tokugawa Shogunate’s weakness in many aspects placed
it in a position where reforms and modernization faced tremendous challenge –
disunity, lack of political mandate especially when challenged by the Imperial
Court, among others. The Imperial Restoration on the other hand offered a fresh
start with a stronger mandate – divine and strength through the support of
Satsuma and Choshu.
The
Tokugawa Shogunate was feudalistic and orderly. So orderly it lacked the social
mobility to drive the people to strive for their development. Its lack of
connection with the outside world deemed it oblivious to modern developments.
Its power stood in an unstable foundation as it rely on the support of the
Daimyos, their samurais, and existed only through the will of the Emperor
centuries ago. Loyalties were divided. Loyalty of the samurais laid within
their Lords and Daimyos and not the whole Japan. Daimyos had sense of
regionalism, especially the Tozama Daimyos, yet they answered to two higher
authorities – for political, the Shogun, and for religious, Emperor. When the
samurais, Daimyos, and the Emperor abandoned the Shogunate, it meant the end,
making any radical and far reaching reform in the Tokugawa regime difficult,
leading eventually to its fall.
The
Meiji Restoration, on the other hand, provided a clean slate for Japan. With
the support of a strong military of Satsuma and Choshu Domains and their
Daimyos, who submitted to the Emperor’s will, or at least, to the oligarchs who
ruled in the shadows, led to the transformation of society from feudalistic and
divided into a united nation. With each of the Daimyos surrendering their
domains to the Emperor meant also the transfer of their people’s loyalty – from
them to the Emperor. The Emperor on the other hand, as the sovereign of the
country, represented the nation of Japan. The idea of loyalty to Japan as
citizen strengthened as the country’s local administration was reformed, strict
social order was broken, and responsibilities, such as conscription, was
mandated to all.
The
Bakumatsu did not just ended the Tokugawa regime, its short epic historical
significance also laid in it being the birthing pain of a modern nation state
of Japan.
Explore also:
Books:
Alcock, Rutherford. The Capital of the Tycoon: A Narrative of a Three Years' Residence in Japan. London: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, & Green, 1863.
Beasley, W.G. The Modern History of Japan. New York, New York: Frederick A. Praeger, Publisher, 1963.
Beasley, W.G. The Modern History of Japan. New York, New York: Frederick A. Praeger, Publisher, 1963.
Craig, Albert et. al. East Asia: The Modern Transformation Volume 2. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1965.
Fukuzawa Yukichi. The Autobiography of Yukichi Fukuzawa. Translated by Eiichi Kiyooka. New York, New York: Columbia University Press, 2007.
Fukuzawa Yukichi. The Autobiography of Yukichi Fukuzawa. Translated by Eiichi Kiyooka. New York, New York: Columbia University Press, 2007.
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Gordon, Andrew. A Modern History of Japan: From Tokugawa Times to the Present. New York, New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.
Gubbins, J.H. The Progress of Japan, 1853 - 1871. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1911.
Harris, Townsend. The Complete Journal of Townsend Harris: First American Consul and Minister to Japan. Rutland, Vermont: Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1959.
Jansen, Marius (ed.). The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 5: The Nineteenth Century. New York, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
Marquis de Moges. Recollections of Baron Gros's Embassy to China and Japan in 1857 - 1858. London: Griffin, Bohn, and Company, 1861.
Murray, David. Japan. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1896.
Murray, David. Japan. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1896.
Oliphant, Laurence. Narrative of the Earl of Elgin's Mission to China and Japan in the Years 1867, '58, '59. London: William Blackwood & Sons, 1860.
Satow, Ernest (Trans.). Japan 1853 - 1864 or Genji Yume Monogatari. Tokyo: n.p., 1905.
__________________. Kinse Shiriaku: A History of Japan, From the First Visit of Commodore Perry in 1853 to the Capture of Hakodate by the Mikado's Forces in 1869. Tokyo: The Naigwai Shuppan Kyokwai, 1906.
Ward, A.W. et. al. The Cambridge Modern History Volume XI: The Growth of Nationalities. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Cambridge University Press, 1909.
Website:
Lord Elgin. Edited by Theodore Walrond. "Letters and Journals of James, Eight Earl of Elgin." In Project Gutenberg. Accessed on June 19, 2016. URL: http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/10610/pg10610-images.html
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