While the Bakufu prepared for its war against Choshu, they suddenly faced a diplomatic crisis, which freed them from the payment of a huge indemnity but in return of another batch of painful concessions. Explore these developments that virtually ended the Jo-i.
End of the Order to
Expel the Barbarians
Deferring of Indemnity Payments
After
the Shimonoseki crisis ended in September 1864, the Bakufu’s situation
continued to be precarious as it needed to meet indemnity payments rather than
to surrender opening more ports than already set up. However, financial difficulty worsened by spending to maintain their political strength undermined its capacity to make indemnity payments. This incapacity led eventually to deferral
of payments and unwanted early opening of ports. Unfortunately, the Bakufu had no choice but to concede when it faced another gunboat diplomacy by the Treaty Powers.
The
Shimonoseki Convention of September 1864 called for the Bakufu’s payment of $
3,000,000 worth of indemnity in 6 installments with half a million each. Already,
it further emptied the coffers of the Bakufu, which already suffered from massive
spending in research and defense and in military campaigns against the Choshu
Domain.
By
April 1865, the Bakufu announced a delay in payment due to financial difficulties; and, Britain saw it as an
opportunity to expand trade with Japan. Before the announcement, in late 1864, British
charge d’affaires, Charles Winchester, proposed deferring 2/3 amount of indemnity in return for the opening of Shimonoseki. Edo out rightly rejected
the proposal preferring punishing payments rather than equally gruel opening of a strategic port of the
country; and, giving its enemy, the Choshu Domain, access to foreign finance,
relations, and possibly support.
Winchester,
nevertheless, proposed to London to defer payment of 2/3 of the indemnity in
exchange for the early opening of the ports of Hyogo (Kobe) and Osaka, approval by the
Emperor in Kyoto on all of Japan’s treaty obligation, and across the board tariff rate reduction
to 5% level. Lord Russell, British Secretary of State, approved this proposal
and the instruction about it arrived on October 1865. The duty of fulfilling this
proposal fell to the newly arrived successor of Rutherford Alcock on June 1865
– Harry Parkes.
Due
to the multilateral nature of the Shimonoseki Convention, Parkes needed the
consent of other signatories to the agreement before forwarding it to Edo. Russia, United States, and Netherlands had no qualms but French minister Leon
Roche rejected it.
Roche suspected his country’s rival’s intentions besides he already committed his country in support of the Bakufu. He viewed the proposal as a threat to the precarious standing of the Bakufu to other domestic political players. Opening the ports of Hyogo and Osaka, cities near the Imperial Capital of Kyoto for the reason of financial mismanagement would undermine the leadership and capability of the Bakufu in the eyes of its allies, opponents (especially Choshu), the Imperial Court, and its rogue ally Satsuma. For days, Roche maintained his position until October 30, 1865 when he ultimately relented after being convinced of the proposal as beneficial to all Treaty Powers.
Roche suspected his country’s rival’s intentions besides he already committed his country in support of the Bakufu. He viewed the proposal as a threat to the precarious standing of the Bakufu to other domestic political players. Opening the ports of Hyogo and Osaka, cities near the Imperial Capital of Kyoto for the reason of financial mismanagement would undermine the leadership and capability of the Bakufu in the eyes of its allies, opponents (especially Choshu), the Imperial Court, and its rogue ally Satsuma. For days, Roche maintained his position until October 30, 1865 when he ultimately relented after being convinced of the proposal as beneficial to all Treaty Powers.
By November, foreign representatives sent their reply to the Bakufu’s
notification on the delays with the British proposal signed by all
involved foreign parties. Edo, however, informed them of the presence
of the State Council and the Shogun in Osaka to manage the Choshu Expedition.
The foreign ministers, well-versed to the delaying tactics of the Japanese in negotiations,
knew proceeding talks with Edo would be tiresome if not wasteful. And so they
grab the opportunity of the Shogun’s presence in Osaka as a means to meet their
end – they sent warships to that port.
Gunboats in Hyogo
On
November 4, 1865, 9 warships bearing the British, French, Dutch Ministers and
the American Charge d’affaires anchored in Hyogo showing off their brute force
that subdued Shimonoseki and Kagoshima. The news of the squadron shocked the
Shogun, the Diamyos, and the Imperial Court as these foreigners anchored ever closer to
Kyoto, the home of the Emperor. The foreign ministers saw their display as part
of a shock awe tactic in a strategy of gunboat diplomacy. They meant to
intimidate Japan to submit to their proposals as Perry did more than a decade
before.
Young Okubo Toshimichi |
Consensus
for its approval further strengthened when Shogun Iemochi offered to resign with
Hitotsubashi as his successor if the court rejected the proposal. Iemochi also
circulated a memorandum showing his support for Kaikoku, for the enrichment of Japan to strengthen its defenses.
Although he followed what others wrote before, the fact that the Shogun himself
professed it altered the dynamics and strengthen the movement for Kaikoku.
On
November 21, 1865, Parkes lose patience and threatened “evil consequences” (from
W.G. Beasley’s The Modern History of Japan) if the Bakufu failed to deliver its
reply as soon as possible. Hitotsubashi used it to reason with Kyoto stating
the impracticality of war and Japan’s sure destruction once they object.
On
November 22, 1865, after much deliberation and consultation with the great
daimyos, like Satsuma’s Shimazu Saburo, the Emperor finally agreed to the foreign
proposal. However, the imperial proposal lacked the affirmation on some issues.
Although it consented to the unresolved treaties, it distanced from the issue
of opening the port of Hyogo. Hitotsubashi, nevertheless, maneuvered to resolve
the contentious issues. He informed foreign representative for the upcoming
negotiations on tariffs as per the proposal but he affirmed Japan’s commitment
in payment of the indemnity as the issue of Hyogo’s opening remained an open
question.
By
January 1866, talks for outright tariff rate of 5% began. But the foreign
ministers and their negotiators expanded the coverage of the talks beyond
tariffs and covered other issues like currency as well.
On
June 25, 1866, the result of the negotiations emerged as the 1866 Tariff Convention.
The main points included the imposition 5% standard tariffs as per agreed, ban
on opium and exports of rice, wheat, barley and saltpeter, and removal of
customs duties on book, gold, silver, coal, and grain. It also secured
government monopoly on trade of precious metals, in particular gold, silver,
and copper. It also removed any restriction on which class of Japanese society allowed to participate in trade. Other than that, it set July 1872 as the date when the
treaty could be revised.
On
June 26, 1867, the Imperial Court issued a decree granting the Bakufu
permission to open Hyogo and to fulfill its treaty obligations. The decree
formally made the Order to Expel the Barbarians (Jo-i) virtually null and void.
Japan’s commercial relation continued to expand with the signing of treaties
with the Belgians in 1866 and with the Italians and Danish in 1867.
As
the Bakufu made head ways in opening the country with the sanction of Kyoto, its
domestic conditions worsened, especially after the Second Choshu Expedition.
Explore also:
Bibliography:
Books:
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